The vagus nerve plays a role in many bodily functions, and it may form a link between areas such as the brain and the gut.
Treatments that focus on the vagus nerve have proved to help people with epilepsy and depression, and it shows promise for rheumatoid arthritis, too. Some experts believe that further research may offer clues to managing diabetes, obesity, heart disease, and other conditions that involve inflammatory processes.
The ilioinguinal nerve branches off the first lumbar nerve, which is near the lower back. The superficial peroneal nerve branches off from the sciatic nerve, or the common peroneal nerve, which ultimately winds around the head of the fibula,. The trigeminal nerve is one of the 12 cranial nerves that connects different parts of the body to the brain.
The central system is the primary…. The accessory nerve is a cranial nerve that controls the movement of certain neck muscles. It is coiled in appearance. It is divided into spinal and…. In the upper arm and near the shoulder, the median nerve branches off of the brachial plexus. It initially spans the length of the upper arm, as it….
The oculomotor nerve is the third of 12 pairs of cranial nerves in the brain. This nerve is responsible for eyeball and eyelid movement. It follows…. The medial cutaneous nerve is located in the arm. It spreads through the middle of the arm, also known as the medial brachial area.
It is also called…. The jejunum is one of three sections that make up the small intestine. Learn about its function and anatomy, as well as the conditions that can affect…. Health Conditions Discover Plan Connect.
What is the Vagus Nerve? Medically reviewed by Seunggu Han, M. Vagus nerve anatomy and function Vagus nerve testing Vagus nerve problems Vagus nerve stimulation Other considerations Takeaway What is the vagus nerve? Vagus nerve anatomy and function. Vagus nerve testing. Vagus nerve problems. Vagus nerve stimulation. Research and other considerations. Read this next. Five years later, the stimulation of the vagus nerve for the treatment of refractory depression was approved by the U.
Since then, the safety and efficacy of VNS in depression has been demonstrated in numerous observational studies as can be seen below. In contrast, there is no randomized, placebo-control clinical trial that reliably demonstrates antidepressant effects of VNS. The mechanism by which VNS may benefit patients nonresponsive to conventional antidepressants is unclear, with further research needed to clarify this Functional neuroimaging studies have confirmed that VNS alters the activity of many cortical and subcortical regions Through direct or indirect anatomic connections via the NTS, the vagus nerve has structural connections with several mood regulating limbic and cortical brain areas Thus, in chronic VNS for depression, PET scans showed a decline in resting brain activity in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex vmPFC , which projects to the amygdala and other brain regions modulating emotion VNS results in chemical changes in monoamine metabolism in these regions possibly resulting in antidepressant action 84 , The relationship between monoamine and antidepressant action has been shown by various types of evidence.
All drugs that increase monoamines—serotonin 5-HT , NE, or dopamine DA —in the synaptic cleft have antidepressant properties Accordingly, depletion of monoamines induces depressive symptoms in individuals who have an increased risk of depression In rats, it has been shown that VNS treatments induce large time-dependent increases in basal neuronal firing in the brainstem nuclei for serotonin in the dorsal raphe nucleus Thus, chronic VNS was associated with increased extracellular levels of serotonin in the dorsal raphe Several lines of evidence suggest that NE is a neurotransmitter of major importance in the pathophysiology and treatment of depressive disorders Thus, experimental depletion of NE in the brain led to a return of depressive symptoms after successful treatment with NE antidepressant drugs The LC contains the largest population of noradrenergic neurons in the brain and receives projections from NTS, which, in turn, receives afferent input from the vagus nerve Thus, VNS leads to an enhancement of the firing activity of NE neurons 93 , and consequently, an increase in the firing activity of serotonin neurons The pharmacologic destruction of noradrenergic neurons resulted in the loss of antidepressant VNS effects In case of DA, it has been shown that the short-term effects 14 days 94 and the long-term effects 12 months 97 of VNS in treatment of resistant major depression may lead to brainstem dopaminergic activation.
DA is a catecholamine that to a large extent is synthesized in the gut and plays a crucial role in the reward system in the brain Further, beneficial effects of VNS might be exerted through a monoamine-independent way. Thus, VNS treatments might result in dynamic changes of monoamine metabolites in the hippocampus 93 and several studies reported the influence of VNS on hippocampal neurogenesis 99 , This process has been regarded as a key biological process indispensable for maintaining the normal mood Serotonin is also an important neurotransmitter in the gut that can stimulate peristalsis and induce nausea and vomiting by activating the vagus nerve.
In addition, it is essential for the regulation of vital functions, such as appetite and sleep, and contributes to feelings of well-being. Serotonin is released from enterochromaffin cells in response to mechanical or chemical stimulation of the gastrointestinal tract which leads to activation of 5-HT3 receptors on the terminals of vagal afferents The central terminals of vagal afferents also exhibit 5-HT3 receptors that function to increase glutamatergic synaptic transmission to second order neurons of the nucleus tractus solitarius within the brainstem.
As a result, interactions between the vagus nerve and serotonin systems in the gut and in the brain appear to play an important role in the treatment of psychiatric conditions. Major depressive disorder ranks among the leading mental health causes of the global burden of disease With a lifetime prevalence of 1.
The pathophysiology of depression is complex and includes social environmental stress factors; genetic and biological processes, such as the overdrive of the HPA axis, inflammation 31 , and disturbances in monamine neurotransmission as described above For example, a lack of the amino acid tryptophan, which is a precursor to serotonin, can induce depressive symptoms, such as depressed mood, sadness, and hopelessness The overdrive of the HPA axis is most consistently seen in subjects with more severe i.
It has been shown that chronic exposure to elevated inflammatory cytokines can lead to depression This might be explained by the fact that cytokine overexpression leads to a reduction of serotonin levels In line with that, treatment with anti-inflammatory agents has the potential to reduce depressive symptoms In line, IBD are important risk factor for mood and anxiety disorders , and these psychiatric conditions increase the risk of exacerbation of IBD A European multicenter study demonstrated a positive effect of VNS on depressive symptoms, in patients with treatment-resistant depression Several other studies also demonstrated an increasing long-term benefit of VNS in recurrent treatment-resistant depression 84 , 85 , Further, a 5-year prospective observational study which compared the effects of treatment as usual and VNS as adjunctive treatment with treatment as usual only in treatment-resistant depression, showed a better clinical outcome and a higher remission rate in the VNS group This was even the case in patients with comorbid depression and anxiety who are frequent non-responders in trials on antidepressant drugs.
It is important to note that all these studies were open-label and did not use a randomized, placebo-controlled study design. Patients with depression have elevated plasma and cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of proinflammatory cytokines. The benefit of VNS in depression might be due to the inhibitory action on the production of proinflammatory cytokines and marked peripheral increases in anti-inflammatory circulating cytokines Altered CRH production and secretion might result from a direct stimulatory effect, transmitted from the vagus nerve through the NTS to the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus.
The gut microbiota is the potential key modulator of the immune and the nervous systems Targeting it could lead to a greater improvement in the emotional symptoms of patients suffering from depression or anxiety. There is growing evidence that nutritional components, such as probiotics , , gluten , as well as drugs, such as anti-oxidative agents and antibiotics , have a high impact on vagus nerve activity through the interaction with the gut microbiota and that this effect varies greatly between individuals.
Indeed, animal studies have provided evidence that microbiota communication with the brain involves the vagus nerve and this interaction can lead to mediating effects on the brain and subsequently, behavior For example, Lactobacillus -species have received tremendous attention due to their use as probiotics and their health-promoting properties Bravo et al.
It has been shown that chronic treatment with L. In addition, L. Importantly, L. This is not surprising, since alterations in central GABA receptor expression are implicated in the pathogenesis of anxiety and depression , The antidepressive and anxiolytic effects of L.
In line with that, in a model of chronic colitis associated to anxiety-like behavior, the anxiolytic effect obtained with a treatment with Bifidobacterium longum , was absent in mice that were vagotomized before the induction of colitis In humans, psychobiotics, a class of probiotics with anti-inflammatory effects might be useful to treat patients with psychiatric disorders due to their antidepressive and anxiolytic effects Differences in the composition of the gut microbiota in patients with depression compared with healthy individuals have been demonstrated Importantly, the fecal samples pooled from five patients with depression transferred into germ-free mice, resulted in depressive-like behavior.
It has been shown that self-generated positive emotions via loving-kindness meditation lead to an increase in positive emotions relative to the control group, an effect moderated by baseline vagal tone In turn, increased positive emotions produced increases in vagal tone, which is probably mediated by increased perceptions of social connections. Individuals suffering from depression, anxiety, and chronic pain have benefited from regular mindfulness meditation training, demonstrating a remarkable improvement in symptom severity 9.
Controlled studies have found yoga-based interventions to be effective in treating depression ranging from mild depressive symptoms to major depressive disorder MDD Some yoga practices can directly stimulate the vagus nerve, by increasing the vagal tone leading to an improvement of autonomic regulation, cognitive functions, and mood and stress coping The proposed neurophysiological mechanisms for the success of yoga-based therapies in alleviating depressive symptoms suggest that yoga breathing induces increased vagal tone Many studies demonstrate the effects of yogic breathing on brain function and physiologic parameters.
Thus, Sudarshan Kriya Yoga SKY , a breathing-based meditative technique, stimulates the vagus nerve and exerts numerous autonomic effects, including changes in heart rate, improved cognition, and improved bowel function During SKY, a sequence of breathing techniques of different frequencies, intensities, lengths, and with end-inspiratory and end-expiratory holds creates varied stimuli from multiple visceral afferents, sensory receptors, and baroreceptors.
These probably influence diverse vagal fibers, which in turn induce physiologic changes in organs, and influence the limbic system A recent study showed that even patients who did not respond to antidepressants showed a significant reduction of depressive and anxiety symptoms compared to the control group after receiving an adjunctive intervention with SKY for 8 weeks Iyengar yoga has been shown to decreased depressive symptoms in subjects with depression Iyengar yoga is associated with increased HRV, supporting the hypothesis that yoga breathing and postures work in part by increasing parasympathetic tone Posttraumatic stress disorder is an anxiety disorder that can develop after trauma and is characterized by experiencing intrusive memories, flashbacks, hypervigilance, nightmares, social avoidance, and social dysfunctions It has a lifetime prevalence of 8.
The symptoms of PTSD can be classified into four clusters: intrusion symptoms, avoidance behavior, cognitive and affective alterations, and changes in arousal and reactivity People who suffer from PTSD tend to live as though under a permanent threat.
They exhibit fight and flight behavior or a perpetual behavioral shutdown and dissociation, with no possibility of reaching a calm state and developing positive social interactions. Over time, these maladaptive autonomic responses lead to the development of an increased risk for psychiatric comorbidities, such as addiction and cardiovascular diseases Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms are partly mediated by the vagus nerve.
There is evidence for diminished parasympathetic activity in PTSD, indicating an autonomic imbalance The vagal control of heart rate via the myelinated vagal fibers varies with respiration. Thus, the vagal influence on the heart can be evaluated by quantifying the amplitude of rhythmic fluctuations in heart rate—respiratory sinus arrhythmia RSA. Further, patients with PTSD have been shown to have lower high-frequency heart rate variability than healthy controls Continuous expression of emotional symptoms to conditioned cues despite the absence of additional trauma is one of the many hallmarks of PTSD.
Thus, exposure-based therapies are considered the gold standard of treatment for PTSD The goal of exposure-based therapies is to replace conditioned associations of the trauma with new, more appropriate associations which compete with fearful associations. Studies have shown that PTSD patients exhibit deficient extinction recall along with dysfunctional activation of the fear extinction network , This network includes the vmPFC, the amygdala, and the hippocampus. It is highly important for the contextual retrieval of fear memories after extinction Posttraumatic stress disorder symptom severity and structural abnormalities in the anterior hippocampus and centromedial amygdala have been associated There is evidence for increased activation of the amygdala in humans and rodents during conditioned fear The amygdala and the vmPFC have reciprocal synaptic connections Indeed, under conditions of uncertainty and threat, the PFC can become hypoactive leading to a failure to inhibit overactivity of the amygdala with emergence of PTSD symptoms, such as hyperarousal and re-experiencing Further, in response to stressful stimuli as fearful faces, patients with PTSD showed a higher activation of the basolateral amygdala during unconscious face processing compared to healthy controls as well as patients with panic disorder and generalized anxiety disorder The hippocampus is also a crucial component of the fear circuit and implicated in the pathophysiology of PTSD.
Patients with PTSD show a reduced hippocampal volume that is associated with symptom severity The hippocampus is a key structure in episodic memory and spatial context encoding.
Hippocampal damage leads to deficits in context encoding in humans as well as rodents. The neural circuit consisting of the hippocampus, amygdala, and vmPFC is highly important for the contextual retrieval of fear memories after extinction Impairment of hippocampal functioning, resulting dysfunctional context generalization in patients with PTSD, might cause patients to re-experience trauma-related symptoms Vagus nerve stimulation has shown promise as therapeutic option in treatment-resistant anxiety disorders, including PTSD 8.
Chronic VNS has been shown to reduce anxiety in rats 96 and improve scores on the Hamilton Anxiety Scale in patients suffering from treatment-resistant depression 8.
When stimulated, the vagus nerve sends signals to the NTS and the NTS sends direct projections to the amygdala and the hypothalamus. Further, VNS increases the release of NE in basolateral amygdala as well as the hippocampus and cortex NE infusion in the amygdala results in better extinction learning Thus, VNS could be a good tool to increase extinction retention.
Further, VNS paired with extinction learning facilitates the plasticity between the infralimbic medial prefrontal cortex and the basolateral complex of the amygdala to facilitate extinction of conditioned fear responses Additionally, VNS may also enhance extinction by inhibiting activity of the sympathetic nervous system It is possible that an immediate VNS-induced reduction in anxiety contributes to VNS-driven extinction by interfering with the sympathetic response to the CS, thus breaking the association of the CS with fear.
However, there is need for randomized controlled trials to approve these observations. One of the most consistent neurophysiological effects of VNS is decreasing the hippocampal activity, possibly through enhancement of GABAergic signaling As described above, the hippocampus is a crucial component of the fear circuit, since it is a key structure in episodic memory and spatial context encoding. Decreased hippocampal activity after VNS has been reported in a number of other studies in other conditions such as depression 77 , or schizophrenia Emerging research suggests that probiotics may have the potential to decrease stress-induced inflammatory responses, as well as associated symptoms.
An exploratory study that investigated the microbiome of patients with PTSD and trauma exposed controls revealed a decreased existence of three bacteria strains in patients with PTSD: Actinobacteria, Lentisphaerae, and Verrucomicrobia that were associated with higher PTDS symptom scores. These bacteria are important for immune regulation and their decreased abundance could have contributed to a dysregulation of the immune system and development of PTSD symptoms A study using a murine model of PTSD has demonstrated that immunization with a heat-killed preparation of the immunoregulatory bacterium Mycobacterium vaccae NCTC induced a more proactive behavioral response to a psychosocial stressor Studies performed in healthy volunteers have shown that the administration of different probiotics were associated with an improved well-being — , as well as a decrease in anxiety and psychological distress , These findings are all preliminary.
There is an urgent need for well-designed, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trials aimed at determining the effect of bacterial supplements and controlled changes in diet on psychological symptoms and cognitive functions in patients with PTSD. During MBSR, slow breathing and long exhalation phases lead to an increase in parasympathetic tone In addition, clinical studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of yoga as a therapeutic intervention for PTSD and dissociation through a downregulation of the stress response — Yoga practices also decreased symptoms in PSTD after natural disasters , The interactions of the PFC, hippocampus, and amygdala in conjunction with inputs from the autonomous nervous system and GABA system provide a network through which yoga-based practices may decrease symptoms There are indications that impaired extinction of conditioned fear in PTSD is associated with decreased vmPFC control over amygdala activity The hallmark of IBD is chronic, uncontrolled inflammation of the intestinal mucosa.
Symptoms are characterized by abdominal pain, diarrhea, fever, weight loss, and extraintestinal skin, eyes, joints manifestations. In CD, the predominant symptoms are diarrhea, abdominal pain, and weight loss, whereas in UC diarrhea is the main symptom, often accompanied by rectal bleeding Inflammatory bowel disease affects about 1. In addition, industrialization led to marked increases in IBD prevalence rates in Asia There is increasing evidence that environmental risk factors, including infections, Western diet and food additives, air and water pollution, drugs antibiotics, hormones , and psychosocial stress work in concert with genetic factors more than genetics factors have been consistently identified in the pathogenesis of IBD, finally leading to an abnormal immune response to microbial exposure , What distinguishes IBD from inflammatory responses seen in the normal gut is an inability to downregulate inflammatory responses, like it happens when intestine becomes inflamed in response to a potential pathogen.
Thus, in individuals with IBD inflammation is not downregulated, the mucosal immune system remains chronically activated, and the intestine remains chronically inflamed Moreover, an anti-inflammatory role of vagus efferents through the CAIP has been reported Vagus nerve stimulation attenuates the systemic inflammatory response to endotoxin 73 and intestinal inflammation The VNs also indirectly modulates immune activity of the spleen through connections with the splenic sympathetic nerve In rats with colonic inflammation, the 3 h long daily VNS for a period of 5 days led to a reduction in inflammatory markers and an improvement in symptoms of colitis In patients with rheumatoid arthritis, a study that demonstrated an improvement of symptoms in the early and late stages of the disease through 1—4 min of VNS daily These data argue for an anti-inflammatory role of the vagus nerve and provide potential therapeutic applications for patients with IBDs 18 , , Mechanistically, the role that inflammation plays in the onset and perpetuation of psychiatric symptoms has garnered increased attention The increase of dysfunctional immunological responses in modern urban societies are posited to be at least in part associated with reduced exposure to commensal and environmental microorganisms that normally prime immunoregulatory circuits and suppress inappropriate inflammation The intestinal bacterial flora is thought to be an important factor in the development and recurrence of IBD and various attempts have been made to modify the flora with probiotics.
In animals with experimental colitis orally or rectally administered lactobacilli have yielded improvements. For example, Lactobacillus plantarum V prevented the onset of disease and reduced established colitis Further, a multispecies probiotic VSL 3 given to mice with established colitis normalized gut barrier function, reduced proinflammatory cytokines, and lessened histological disease In addition, a combination of probiotics with Saccharomyces boulardii, Lactobacillus , and VSL 3 showed slight improvements of CD symptoms These data are preliminary and need confirmation by future studies.
So far, no probiotic treatments have been officially recommended for the treatment of CD In UC, there is reliable evidence for VSL 3 to be beneficial in the treatment of mildly active pouchitis An increasing number of studies have shown benefits with relaxation-related treatment of IBD.
For example, a randomized controlled trial of a relaxation-training intervention compared to a control group has shown decrease in pain as well as decreased anxiety levels and improvements in quality of life Also mindfulness-based therapy , a comprehensive mind-body program , meditation , mind-body alternative approaches , yoga , and relaxation response-based mind-body interventions have shown to be beneficial for IBD patients.
In addition, hypnotherapy, which increases vagal tone , has been effective in the treatment of IBD The interaction between the gut and the brain is based on a complex system that includes not only neural but also endocrine, immune, and humoral links. The vagus nerve is an essential part of the brain—gut axis and plays an important role in the modulation of inflammation, the maintenance of intestinal homeostasis, and the regulation of food intake, satiety, and energy homeostasis.
An interaction between nutrition and the vagus nerve is well known, and vagal tone can influence food intake and weight gain. Moreover, the vagus nerve plays an important role in the pathogenesis of psychiatric disorders, obesity as well as other stress-induced and inflammatory diseases. Vagus nerve stimulation and several meditation techniques demonstrate that modulating the vagus nerve has a therapeutic effect, mainly due to its relaxing and anti-inflammatory properties. Extinction paired with VNS is more rapid than extinction paired with sham stimulation.
As it is currently approved by the Federal FDA for depression and seizure prevention, VNS is a readily available and promising adjunct to exposure therapy for the treatment of severe anxiety disorders.
Vagus nerve stimulation is an effective anticonvulsant device and has shown in observational studies antidepressant effects in chronic treatment-resistant depression. Because the vagus nerve sends information to brain regions is important in the stress response LC, orbitofrontal cortex, insula, hippocampus, and amygdala , this pathway might be involved in perceiving or manifesting various somatic and cognitive symptoms that characterize stress-related disorders.
Psychotropic drugs, such as serotonin reuptake inhibitors, have effects on both the brain and the gastrointestinal tract and consequently should be understood as modulators of the brain—gut axis. Research investigating the interaction between nutritive factors, somatic factors, such as heart rate, psychological and pharmacological treatments, and vagal activity has the potential to lead to integrative treatment options that incorporate VNS, nutritional approaches, drugs, and psychological interventions, such as mindfulness-based approaches, which can be tailored to the needs of the individual patient.
GH outlined structure of this paper, reviewed literature, and wrote this paper. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The authors gratefully acknowledge Sarah Steinau for her contributions to this article.
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What is the vagus nerve? Stimulation Further research and considerations The vagus nerve is the longest and most complex of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves that emanate from the brain. Share on Pinterest The vagus nerve is one of the cranial nerves that connect the brain to the body.
Vagus nerve stimulation. Share on Pinterest Vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy may have some side effects including sore throat and difficulty swallowing. Further research and considerations. Share on Pinterest Studies suggest that stimulation of the vagus nerve may help to reduce symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis.
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